Protectionism in the U.S Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Protectionism in the U.S - Term Paper Example An exchange hindrance is a general articulation that shows any administration strategy or guideline that limits global exchange, the boundaries can take numerous structures, including: Import obligations Import licenses Fare licenses Shares Taxes Sponsorships Taxes, which are charges on exchange of provisions into a nation or district, are among the most established types of government mediation in money related action. They are executed for two clear monetary purposes. In the first place, they award income for the administration. Second, they show signs of improvement monetary comes back to firms and providers of assets to a residential industry that faces rivalry from imported products. Taxes are comprehensively used to shield household producers’ earnings from remote rivalry. This fortress comes at a financial expense to residential customers who follow through on greater expenses for import testing merchandise and to the economy overall through the wasteful assignment of assets to the import-contending local industry. Hence, since 1948, when normal duties on produced merchandise outperform 30 percent in most created economies, those economies have looked to diminish taxes on made products through a few rounds of conversations u nder the General Agreement on Tariffs Trade. â€Å"Non-duty hindrances incorporate non-science based sterile and phytosanitary (SPS) gauges, customs methodology, government syndications and absence of straightforwardness in regulations†. Some non-duty exchange obstructions are mostly satisfactory in fractional conditions when they are estimated important to keep wellbeing, security, or sanitation. Non-levy obstructions to exchange can be: State endowments, obtainment, exchanging, and proprietorship. National guidelines on wellbeing, security, business. Item Classification. Shares. Outside Exchange: controls and assortment. Over intricate or lacking framework. 'Purchase national' strategy. Protected innovation laws (licenses and copyrights). Pay off and defilement. Unjustifiable traditions techniques.

Coke as Cleaning Agent Essay Example for Free

Coke as Cleaning Agent Essay Trademark Facts Coke is known for being the most perceived trademark in the entirety of the world, flaunting a close to 94% brand acknowledgment by the universes populace. One contributing element to this measurement is a drawn out association with the Olympics. This association started at the 1928 Summer Olympics in Amsterdam. In 1983, Diet Coke was propelled in Australia and inside a year turned into the number two soda pop of decision in the nation, after Coke. Coke likewise brags more than 500 brands and all the more then 1,200 packaging plants in different pieces of the world. Supported Links Modern Hand Cleaner Antibacterial, Protective Hand Soap Multi-reason Ind. Hand Solutions www.chemsearch.ph/handsoap Buyer Facts As indicated by CokeFacts.com, it is assessed that about 10,450 soda pops from Coca-Cola are expended each second of consistently. Ten jugs of Coke on normal were expended during the principal year that Coke was appropriated. In 2009, it is evaluated that more than one billion servings are expended each and every day. Cooking Agent Facts Coke can likewise be utilized in various cooking circumstances. Numerous individuals will pour an entire container of Coke into a preparing dish and afterward wrap up the ham or other meat of decision in aluminum foil. They will at that point heat the ham while it is resting in the dish loaded up with Coke. It is said to deliver a clammy ham once it is totally done. Cleaning Agent Facts Shockingly, Coke can be an incredible cleaning operator also. It very well may be utilized to clear erosion off of vehicle battery terminals, to extricate a corroded jolt or help to evacuate film off of your vehicle windshield. One of the most unusual uses for Coke is to utilize it as a cleaning operator for the can. Evidently, you can empty a jar of Coke into the latrine, let it sit for a few minutes, and afterward flush the can. The outcome: a perfect and utilitarian can. Understand more: Facts About Coke | eHow.com http://www.ehow.com/about_5409773_coke.html#ixzz2K5itRtDt

What Are Academic Essay Examples?

What Are Academic Essay Examples?At the outset, it must be clearly understood that there are no uniform academic essay samples. This means that you should not base your answer on the examples of another student who has also used a specific format for writing an essay. What you will discover is that each person who wrote a good essay has his or her own set of ideas are always unique.This means that each person is unique when it comes to a number of things that relate to different academic essay examples. This is not to say that you will have a set of ideas are also unique and you need to agree on a certain idea and stick with it throughout the essay. It is not necessary to have the same set of ideas as the next person as you will discover when you write your own paper.For instance, the format of a paper does not directly correlate to the format that is appropriate for academic essay examples. A good example of an essay format will contain both text and essay related topics. The format for an essay will depend on the subject matter.The first thing that you should realize is that academic essay examples require a writer to understand that they are in fact writing for the essay format and not for the information that they are presenting in a chronological order. This means that the writer should be able to understand how to present information that relates to an overall thesis of the essay as well as being able to present information in a manner that makes sense for the academic essay examples.You will find that all different academic essay examples are geared towards some type of theme. These themes include anything from the writer's academic background and area of study to their favorite subject to the length of their writing projects.The type of topic will usually define the type of essay that you are writing and how much information you can present. As well, the essay will have a style of its own depending on the person who will be presenting the information.In addition to all of this, the educational level of the writer will be one of the deciding factors as to what academic essay examples you use. The person should have an ability to understand and get information from sources and present the material in a manner that is clear and understandable.There are a number of common ways that you will find that these subjects are presented in a number of different academic essays. For instance, there are class discussions, research papers, annual reports, and even case studies. You will also find that there are techniques that you can apply in your own writing when it comes to understanding the form that you are using.

The Cloud Of Architecture Of A Cloud - 4723 Words

Distributed computing is another processing standard where in PC preparing is being performed through web by a standard program. Distributed computing expands on settled patterns for driving the expense out of the conveyance of administrations while expanding the velocity and deftness with which administrations are conveyed. It abbreviates the time from portraying out application building design to genuine arrangement. Distributed computing fuses virtualization, on-interest organization, Internet conveyance of administrations, and open source programming. The Cloud Registering Architecture of a cloud arrangement is the structure of the framework, which involves on-reason and cloud assets, administrations, middleware, and programming parts,†¦show more content†¦One of the contemplations when moving to cloud is the security issues. One thought is that the novel issues connected with distributed computing security have not been perceived. A few specialists feel that distributed computing security won t be vastly different from existing security practices and that the security viewpoints can be very much overseen utilizing existing methods, for example, computerized marks, encryption, firewalls, and/or the disconnection of virtual situations, etc. 2. SECURITY IN MOBILE CLOUD COMPUTING 2.1 Security Framework in Mobile Cloud Computing: Portable distributed computing is developing step by step because of the prominence of distributed computing and expanding employments of cell phones. Numerous analysts are demonstrating their advantage towards this innovation. There are numerous issues in portable distributed computing because of numerous restrictions of cell phones like low battery force, restricted storage rooms, data transmission and so on. Security is the principle concern in portable cloud processing. Security in versatile distributed computing can be clarified by comprehensively arranging it into 2 systems. 2.1.1 Security of Data/Files: The principle issue in utilizing versatile distributed computing is securing the information of versatile client put away on portable cloud. The information/record of a versatile client is exceptionally delicate; any unapproved individual canShow MoreRelatedCloud Computing Architecture : Technology Architecture1299 Words   |  6 PagesCloud computing architecture is the design of cloud computing. It consists of components needed for cloud computing to function properly. Front end contain applications/platforms that users can use to access back end components. Back end contains the â€Å"cloud† part of the architecture such as the cloud storage and networking. The reason why it’s significant in the technological world is because it allows users to store data into an online platform. In doing so, this eliminates the need to continouslyRead MoreProject Analysis : Cloud Architectures1298 Words   |  6 PagesPaper Title: Cloud Architectures Reviewer Name: Sultan Aldakheel Content Review: Jinesh Varia Problems addressed by the Paper Varia research attempts to give a description of an exemplar of an application, which is presently in production utilizing the on-demand components that Amazon Web Services offer. The author wished to find out if the application could enable a developer to match patterns through many web documents. In this regard, the researcher found it useful in bringing up on- demandRead MoreQuestions On Cloud Computing Architectures1488 Words   |  6 Pages 2 . Cloud Computing Architectures 2.1 Cloud Software-as-a-Service: The software as service architecture gives access to a software infrastructure, which is remotely accessed via the web, based services. In this infrastructure, it is important to note that the service provider is responsible for managing the infrastructure. This architecture allows companies to get the business functionality of software by incurring a minimal cost, which is less than paying for the licensed applications. It followsRead MoreCloud Networking And Data Architecture1108 Words   |  5 Pages Cloud Networking and Data Architecture This white paper will bridge both Cloud Networking and Data Architecture on how it currently fits the organization, WideOpenWest (WOW!) privations. A majority of new organizations are trending to the very popular Cloud networking that can also â€Å"join-in† different types of data architectures. Huge corporations are using terms like â€Å"Big Data, †¦ a popular term used to describe the exponential growth and availability of data, both structured and unstructuredRead MoreCloud Architecture Personal Statement Examples1095 Words   |  5 PagesI have executive level and technical expertise and skill in all architectures including but not limited to: cloud architecture, systems architecture, service-oriented architecture, application architecture, web-based solutions, data architecture and security architecture. I possess extensive experience and skill in developing and implementing mobile solutions, big data, business intelligence and e-commerce. I have the ability, knowledge and skill to understanding and implement future trends andRead MoreArchitecture Of Internet Application For Cloud Computing1790 Words   |  8 Pages Figure: 1.1: Architecture of Internet application in cloud computing [4] As each server machine can host multiple application so it is important that application should be stateless for the reason that every application store their position information in backend storage servers, so that is repeated safely but it may cause storage servers becomes overloaded but the focus of proposed work is on application tire presenting a architecture is representative of a hugeRead MoreVirtual Network Architecture For Cloud Computing Essay3253 Words   |  14 Pagessangeeta.wankhade@vpt.edu.in, dpatil@mes.ac.in ï€   Green Virtual Networks for Cloud Computing Abstract— Information and communication technology (ICT) profoundly impact on environment because of its large amount of CO2 emissions. In the past years, the research field of green and low power consumption is of great importance for both service/network providers and equipment manufacturers. An emerging technology called cloud computing can increase the utilization and efficiency of hardware equipmentRead MoreCloud Of Things : Integration, Architecture, Applications And Future2286 Words   |  10 Pages Cloud of Things: Integration, Architecture, Applications and Future By Ashis Kumar Saha Abstract 1. Introduction The future of computing is a collection of data generated by computer enabled objects or things and we rely on the information gathered to make our lives easier with the data acquired. Thus Internet of things came into existence where the objects or Things try to understand their surroundings and retain the data. These objects or things are connected to servers over the InternetRead MoreEvaluate the Usability Cloud Computing Architecture and Framework in Business2555 Words   |  11 Pagesâ€Å"Evaluate the usability Cloud Computing Architecture and Framework in Business† topic. The questions about the features of Cloud framework and the usability of Cloud in global business are proposed. The research plans to solve the questions such as the usability of these advantages for global business and the issue to use Cloud for global business. Some practical products will be also analysed to find out benefits and drawbacks of existing business platform or products which based on C loud framework. TheRead MoreThe Cloud Computing Technology Is An Architecture Based On Saas And Paas Over Internet1112 Words   |  5 Pages According to Duncan, â€Å"Architecture Dr. Schadt† is a founding member of â€Å"Sage Bionetworks†. This is helped in initiative design to support or build the database (Duncan, 2009). In today’s world organizations looking forward to have more powerful computing to successfully achieve their projects or goals. â€Å"As the case of extreme scientists† states cloud computing, as professor â€Å"Varma† says, the usage of cloud computing been highly impacting in organizational growth, based on software as a service

1984 War is Peace Essay - 978 Words

â€Å"The past was erased, the erasure was forgotten, the lie became truth.† In the novel â€Å"1984† by George Orwell, Winston undergoes a metamorphosis of character, which changes his life forever. At first Winston is just like everyone else, a dull drone of the party. Then he changes his ideals and becomes true to himself with obvious rebellion towards party principles and standards. Finally, Winston is brainwashed and is turned against himself and his feelings and is made to love the party. This is a story of perception, and how different it can be from one person to the next. nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;Winston is a miserable member of a society he hates, and is controlled and watched in every area of his life. He has no desire to go on†¦show more content†¦More than anything he wants to be able to have his own thoughts; not just be told what to think, do, and feel. He goes through the motions of outward orthodoxy, but inside he lives in a world of dreams, memories and endless speculation about the existence of the past in the face of the Partys continual alteration of documents. Winston is devoid of any creativity or â€Å"one-ness† as a human being, and feels he is being denied the right to live a real life. nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;Tired of feeling the way he is, with the monotonous struggle of everyday life Winston decides to oppose the party in more real ways; and begins to deviate from certain set behaviors to free himself from this bondage of the party. â€Å"To the future or to the past, to a time when thought is free, when men are different from one another and do not live alone-to a time when truth exists and what is done cannot be undone†(25-26). He has realized what the government does to people; how everyone is made to be the same, where no one is allowed to think on their own. The party is omnipotent in all affairs and he will not go along with it anymore. Winston has made up his mind; he is going to do everything he can to bring down the party. He and Julia go to O’Brien’s apartment one afternoon, and Winston’s true hatred is revealed. â€Å"We believe that there is some kind of conspiracy, some kind of secret organization working against the Par ty,Show MoreRelated1984: War Is Peace1004 Words   |  5 PagesThe past was erased, the erasure was forgotten, the lie became truth. In the novel 1984 by George Orwell, Winston undergoes a metamorphosis of character, which changes his life forever. At first Winston is just like everyone else, a dull drone of the party. Then he changes his ideals and becomes true to himself with obvious rebellion towards party principles and standards. Finally, Winston is brainwashed and is turned against himself and his feelings and is made to love the party. ThisRead More1984 War Is Peace995 Words   |  4 Pages1984 essay. War is peace. Freedom is slavery. Ignorance is strength. This is the slogan of the Ministry of Truth, a branch of the totalitarian government in post-war London. The figurehead of this government is Big Brother, who employs a vast army of informers called the Thought Police who watch and listen to every citizen at all times through a device called a telescreen for the least signs of criminal deviation or unorthodox thoughts. This novel, like Orwell’s earlier work Animal Farm andRead MoreHunger Games And 1984 By George Orwell852 Words   |  4 PagesHunger Games vs 1984 The novel 1984 by George Orwell is based in a totalitarian society where the inner party controls the rest of Oceania. This storyline is very similar to the modern day story of The Hunger Games. Themes in 1984 such as Big Brother, the Inner Party, Telescreens, Thought Police, and Rebels are all also portrayed in The Hunger Games. Both stories follow the journey of the main character that is also the rebel in the story. There are many modern day stories that model the dystopianRead MoreAnalysis Of George Orwell s 1984 Essay1127 Words   |  5 Pagesmankind, yet it is difficult find one that is perfect even till today. George Orwell shows an example of this within 1984. 1984 was written based on what Orwell thought the government would be like in 1984. He used his personal knowledge and experience with the government to create his story. The setting of 1984 is set in a superstate where there is a totalitarian government. Within 1984 and the 21st century one major key stands out: corr uption rules both governments. Trust is part of a foundationRead MoreCritical Analysis Of 1984 By George Orwell1257 Words   |  6 Pages1984 by George Orwell sets the overall eerie tone of the book early on. â€Å"BIG BROTHER IS WATCHING YOU† (Orwell 3). In the book this was the statement was put on a poster of big brothers face. Firstly this is an example of metonymy. In the statement the term â€Å"BIG BROTHER† isn’t referring to how big brother very closely related to the thought police. The thought police is the organization that monitors the inner and outer party members. Secondly this can be looked through a postmodernist lens as theRead More1984 and Now1451 Words   |  6 Pages1984 AND NOW 1984  : Newspeak Now  : Politically Correct speech 1984  : The red sash of the Junior Anti-Sex League Now  : The red ribbon of the Anti-Aids celibacy league 1984  : Telescreens in every room. The programming runs 24 hours a day, and the proles have no way of turning their screens off. Now  : Televisions in every room. The programming runs 24 hours a day, and the proles rarely turn their screens off. 1984  : Telescreens in all public and private places, so the populace could beRead MoreComparing Orwells 1984 to Todays Government Essay1599 Words   |  7 Pages 1984 has come and gone. The cold war is over. The collapse of oppressive totalitarian regimes leads to the conclusion that these governments by their nature generate resistance and are doomed to failure. The fictional world of George Orwells novel, 1984, is best described as hopeless; a nightmarish dystopia where the omnipresent State enforces perfect conformity among members of a totalitarian Party through indoctrination, propaganda, fear, and ruthless punishment. In the aftermath of the fallRead MoreA Literary Analysis Of 1984 By George Orwell721 Words   |  3 Pagesbook â€Å"1984 by George Orwell† it was written in 1948 as a thriller. Winston Smith is the main character of this story followed by two characters â€Å"Julia and O’Brien.† The book starts off with main character Winston being very frustrated with what is called the â€Å"Party† lead by a man named â€Å"Big Brother† hints the saying â€Å"big brother is watching you† from â€Å"George Orwells worst fear† stated by express.co.uk. the book takes you for a ride through what the author believes will happen by the year 1984 he statsRead MoreGeorge Orwell s 1984 Power1426 Words   |  6 PagesIn George Orwell’s 1984 Power is gained most effectively through control, fear and violence. Compared to a government like that of America’s, 1984 creates a more threatening structure of government where the public is limited from freedom and happiness. 1984 shows a world of a society where only the upper class has power and freedom from the harsh treatment that the general population receives. The idea of Big Bother makes the population of Oceania believe they are being watched over by a powerfulRead MoreAnalysis Of 1984 , Untruths, Myths And False Data Controls The Reasoning Of The Natives886 Words   |  4 PagesPeriod 4 1984 In 1984, untruths, myths and false data controls the reasoning of the natives. The Party utilizes purposeful publicity as the deadliest weapon of control. Promulgation builds the residents resolve and makes them surmise that what the gathering instructs them to do is constantly right. There are principally two sorts of purposeful publicity, one changes truth, purported doublethink, and another makes dread. Doublespeak can be seen much of the time in the realm of 1984. The gathering

The National Incident Management System - 1579 Words

The National Incident Management System is a systematic guideline on how to effectively plan, mitigate, respond and recover, from significant incidences especially those that encompass diverse interest and involves all levels of governments. It works hand in hand with the National Response Framework, which provides structure for incident management while NIMS provide the guide for all departments and agencies at all levels of government, nongovernmental organizations, and the private sector to work flawlessly during incident management to reduce loss of life and property (U. S. Department of Homeland Security, 2008). The core aspect of the National Incident Management System during incident response is the Incident Command System (ICS),†¦show more content†¦Also, there are some challenges involves in mobilizing and deploying response teams in some special incidents. For instance, during the 2010 Deepwater Horizon (DWH) Incident, there were reports of â€Å"some delay in a chieving a fully functioning, effective and efficient Incident Command System† (Florida Commission on Oil Spill Response Coordination, 2012, P.33). As such some questions like why should city emergency management personnel use the National Incident Management System rather than developing their own command and control system often arises. This paper will try to answer or clarify this question by examining the advantages and disadvantages of the NIMS; endeavor to see if there is any advantages and disadvantages, of developing and using an ad hoc system to manage emergency; And then compare the advantages and disadvantages both systems; finally try to justify the use of the National Incident Management System as opposed to emergency management personnel developing an ad hoc command system for each individual emergency or disaster situation. Advantages of the NIMS The National Incident Management System (NIMS) which was created in 2003 based on existing structures provides framework for all types of incidence throughout the country. It aimed at uniting all those involves in incident management together for a common goal of successful management of incidents. Some notable benefits of NIMS include integration of incident

Micro/Macro Sociology free essay sample

The term macro denotes large; thus macrosociology refers to the study of large-scale social phenomena. This covers a very broad range of topics that includes groups and collectivities of varying sizes, the major organizations and institutions of one or more societies, cross-sectional or historical studies of a single society, and both comparative and historical analyses of multiple societies. At the grandest level it may cover all human society and history. Sociologists distinguish macrosociology from microsociology, which focuses on the social activities of individuals and small groups. The micro-macro distinction forms one of the central dualisms characterizing divergent sociological perspectives. Seemingly polar opposites such as conflict-consensus, stability-change, structure-agency, subjectiveobjective, and materialist-idealist, as well as micro-macro, provide a shorthand method for denoting differences in central assumptions, subjects, and models. As with many other oppositional concepts, however, the boundary between microsociology and macrosociology is not clearly distinguished, and at the margins there is much room for overlap. Typically, micro-level studies examine individual thought, action, and interaction, often coinciding with social-psychological theories and models, whereas macro-level investigations target social structures and those forces that organize as well as divide individuals into political, social or religious organizations, ethnic populations, communities, and nation-states. Nevertheless, in defining these terms there is major conceptual ambiguity that can be formulated as a question: Should the distinction be based on substantive criteria (specialty and subdisciplinary areas within sociology such as social change and development), theoretical criteria (e. g. , functionalist, Marxist), metatheoretical criteria (type of paradigm, epistemology), or methodological criteria (type of research design and analysis techniques)? Since sociologists often use the terms micro and macro quite casually as convenient devices for categorizing broad areas of theory and research, each of these criteria can be found in the literature, and quite often they are seriously confounded. A useful means of distinguishing between the two approaches is based on the concept of units of analysis. Macrosociology uses as its subjects structural-level units of analysis or cases that are larger than observations of individual action and interaction. Even here, however, there is ambiguity, since it is quite possible to make observations on smaller units (e. g. , individuals) with the intention of analyzing (making inferences about) larger entities (e. g. , groups, classes). Also, the issue of where to draw the line remains. Rather than attempting to draw any hard-and-fast line delineating macro-level from micro-level phenomena, it is helpful to conceptualize a continuum of the subject matter of sociology with micro and macro defining two end points and with societal-level phenomena clearly placed at the macro pole. George Ritzer, for example, describes one level of social reality as a micro-macro continuum moving from individual thought and action through interaction, groups, organizations, and societies to culminate in world systems (Ritzer 1988, pp. 512-518). Since the macro end of the continuum focuses on social structure, it is important to clarify the use of this term. In a review essay, Neil Smelser (1988, pp. 103-129) describes structure as patterned relationships that emerge from the interaction of individuals or groups over time and space. Institutions and identifiable collectivities are the outcomes of systematically related structures of activities. Structure is dually defined as located in collective actors and in their interaction. Thus social class is an example of social structure, as are the relationships between classes whose locus is the economy. The study of social class and the study of the economy are examples of macrosociology. Other examples emerge from the macrosociological focus on large-scale structural arrangements and activities of a great number of individuals in large-scale geographical space over long periods of time. Thus macroscopic questions in sociology conventionally revolve around the largest social, spatial, and temporal processes, such as the rise and decline of civilizations; the origins and development of modern nation-states, social movements, and revolutions; and the origins and consequences of social, political, economic, and cultural transformations. Examples include the rise and spread of secular ideologies and religious belief systems, democratic transitions, and the nature and effects of large-scale institutions and organizations. Macro-level analysis is usually embedded in structural and conflict theories, and in studies of societal dynamics and epochal transformations of cultures and social structures. Topics are located within numerous subfields of sociology, including but not limited to stratification and inequality, resource mobilization, political and economic sociology, world systems, human evolution, and ecology. They are equally likely to cross or link disciplinary boundaries to incorporate history, geography, political economy, and anthropology. Historical Background The concern with macro-level phenomena is as old as the discipline of sociology and arguably is the primary motivation for the creation of classical sociological theory and research. The men generally accorded honored places in the pantheon of sociologys founders, such as Auguste Comte, Herbert Spencer, Karl Marx, Emile Durkheim, and Max Weber (and additional historical figures such as Alexis de Tocqueville), all included macro-level phenomena among their dominant concerns. The traditions they established retain their definitive role for the central issues of sociology in general and macrosociology in particular. The themes pursued by these and other classical theorists are found in subsequent theory and research. For example, the evolutionary perspectives on the development of human society advanced by early theorists have been modified, revised, and developed by contemporary evolutionary theorists such as Lenski (Lenski et al. 995) and in the modern functionalist and neo-functionalist theories of Talcott Parsons (1966), Niklas Luhmann (1982), and Jeffrey Alexander (1998). Marxs historical materialist explanation of the unfolding of capitalism has spawned numerous offspring, including dependency and world system theories (Amin 1976; Frank 1967; Wallerstein 1974), and studies of the rise of the modern state and class conflict by Moore (1966). Similarly, Webers comparative and historical studies of social stratification and the development of modern states are reflected in the works of Reinhard Bendix (1977; 1978), Theda Skocpol (1979) and Michael Mann (1986; 1993) Emile Durkheims analysis of the division of labor in modern societies as well as the sources of societal integration underlie all modernization theory and functional perspectives on race and ethnic relations, as well as most contemporary studies of occupational structures. Alexis de Tocquevilles comparative study of democracy has remained an inspirational source for contemporary theories of democracy and social change. In short, the macrosociological problems defined early in the history of sociology remain major focuses of current sociological research. Also located in these early works but often overlooked in subsequent interpretations is an issue that is the current central project of many social theorists: the links between macro- and micro-level phenomena. At least in the writings of Marx, Weber, and Durkheim, to a greater or lesser degree, efforts are made to connect individual and structural level activities in some coherent fashion. For example, Marx is often considered the quintessential macrosociologist, providing the foundation for much current macrosociology. Yet as Bertell Ollman (1976) and others point out, there is a distinct social psychology anchored in Marxs concept of alienation that in turn motivates and is motivated by his macro-level modes of productive relations and class conflict. This concern with linkage has often been ignored or forgotten in the distinctive development of different schools of sociological thought. After years of separate development and sometimes acrimonious debate, efforts to conduct research and develop social theories that include both ends of the micro-macro continuum now constitute a major agenda for many sociologists. Themes in Macrosociological Theory and Research Macrosociogical studies vary in both subject and theoretical orientation, but the two are closely related. For example, large-scale studies of single total societies or particular societal institutions often operate from a functionalist or systems perspective in which the effort is to understand how component parts fit together and serve larger social goals. On the other hand, studies of social change, either within a single society or across cultures, more often use one of the many variants of conflictMarxist, neo-Marxist, and Weberian perspectives. They do so because such theories are better equipped to explain conflict and change than the relatively static models promoted by functionalism, and because functionalism no longer dominates sociology. These are broad generalizations, however, which invite counterexample. Given the sweeping scope of macrosociology, it is not possible to provide comprehensive coverage of all the topics and theories subsumed under this approach. The next section will illustrate key concerns of macrosociologists by describing exemplary theory and research in some major areas of macrosociology. Societal Evolutionary Change. The numerous approaches to the study of societal change illustrate the diversity of sociological perspectives. At the most sweeping level, evolutionary theories take all human history and society as their subject, but there are numerous variants to this approach. For example, evolutionary theory has gone hand in hand with functionalism, as in the later work of Talcott Parsons on human societies (1966), which features the basic assumptions of evolutionary theory in terms of holism (the whole unit rather than its parts), universalism (natural and perpetual change), and unidirectionality (progressive and cumulative change). An idealist version of an evolutionary perspective can be found in Jurgen Habermas (1979), who uses an evolutionary model to explain the development of normative structures and forms of rationality. Alternatively, it has also taken a materialist form, as developed by anthropologists (Harris 1977) and a few sociologists (Lenski, 1966, Lenski et al. 1995), to explain inequality and uneven distribution of social resources. Another version of societal evolutionary change that deviates somewhat from the mainstream of progressive evolution are the cyclical dynamics of societal and cultural change proposed in works of Pitirim Sorokin (1962). Evolutionary analysis also was once popular in the fields of human ecology (Hawley 1971), modernization (Smelser 1964), and structural and cultural assimilation of different racial groups in modern society (Gordon 1964). Currently, there are relatively few sociologists who operate on this scale or who find it useful for analyzing more confined periods of historical change. Nevertheless, contemporary theories of human evolution have been influential in providing comparative evidence for the material and normative bases of different forms of social organization and for describing the broadest patterns of societal change. These include the distribution of societal goods and services, enduring forms of inequality (e. g. , patriarchy), and normative systems. Modernization and Development. Sociologists often limit their study of change to the emergence of modern industrial society, either to trace the paths taken by mature industrialized societies to reach their current state of development or to investigate the problems of developing nations. Here, too, different approaches emerge from different theoretical perspectives. Modernization theory, which until the 1960s dominated accounts of development and change, grew out of functionalism and evolutionary perspectives. In the version articulated by economist W. W. Rostow (1960), nonindustrial societies, through diffusion and a natural developmental sequence, were expected to follow a series of stages previously traversed by fully industrialized nations to attain the significant characteristics of modern societies considered prerequisites for development. This process required breaking from traditional social norms and values to build institutions based on modern values such as universalism, rationalization, and achievement orientation. Although today largely abandoned in favor of more historically and materially grounded theories, modernization theory was highly influential among both scholars and policy makers of the post-World War II era. In fact, it can be argued that the influence of modernization theory in part explains its repudiation, since students of and from emerging developing nations viewed it as an instrument of continued colonial domination and capitalist exploitation. Their search for tools to provide a better explanation for their disadvantaged and subordinate position in the international arena led to the adoption of Marxist-based models of dependency, underdevelopment, and world systems to replace modernization as the dominant approach to change and development within the modern era. As summarized by Peter Evans and John Stephens (1988, p. 740), these approaches turned the modernization theorists emphasis on diffusion . . . n its head, arguing instead that ties to core countries were a principal impediment to development. In an influential early formulation, dependency theorist Andre Gunder Frank (1967) maintained that the experience of most nonindustrial nations is explained by the development of underdevelopment. In other words, the exploitation of peripheral Third World nations by capital in the core, developed world increased the economic, social, and political misery experienced by the majority populations of those Third World countries. Alliances between local and international elites actively worked to defend the status quo distribution of power and privilege at the expense of peasant- and working-class majorities. Later versions refined the models of class conflict and competition or, as in the writings of Samir Amin (1976), elaborated the model of the relationships between center and periphery economies to show how underdevelopment grows out of the exploitive links between the two types of systems. All versions contribute to a refutation of the trajectory of development described by modernization theory. A more global approach to development issues was formulated by Immanuel Wallerstein (1974, 1980, 1988) and his followers. World system theory elaborates the Marxist model of economic domination into a system in which exploitation occurs worldwide. Wallerstein broadens the focus on class relations among and across nations to examine the development of an international division of labor in the capitalist world economy where core industrial nations exploit peripheral regions as sources of raw materials and labor. This approach has been both enormously influential and controversial, generating massive amounts of research on the model itself, particular spatial and historical portions of the world system, and particular subsectors and groups. A helpful overview that charts the intricacies of this perspective can be found in a text by Thomas Shannon (1989). The emphasis on First World as well as Third World development found in world-system theory provides a bridge to a slightly different tradition that focuses on the emergence of the core industrial nations and their political systems. Much of this literature is concerned with development of modern political as well as economic systems. For example, while Barrington Moores study (1966) of the transformation of agrarian societies into modern industrial states remains firmly anchored in a Marxist emphasis on class relations and productive systems, it is also concerned with the political roles played by antagonistic classes and the political outcomes of their confrontation. Numerous other studies pursue a similar comparative perspective on the upheavals that accompanied the emergence of modern Western industrial nations (cf. Tilly et al. 1975). One other type of study in this tradition deserves mention. These are studies of social and political change that occur within a particular society at various stages in the industrialization process. John Walton (1987) provides a convenient typology based on cross-classifying epochs and processes of industrialization. The resulting types range from protoindustrialization through deindustrialzation. Studies from early periods focus on the emergence of particular classes, on class conflict, and on the influence of classes on the historical development of modern nations, as in E. P. Thompsons and John Fosters influential accounts of English class formation (Thompson 1963; Foster 1974), Ron Aminzades analysis of nineteenth-century France (1984), and Herbert Gutmans studies of American class culture and conflict (1966). Influential studies of transitions in later periods of industrial development examine the consolidation of control of the labor process (Burawoy 1979; Edwards 1979), deindustrialization (Bluestone and Harrison 1982), informalization of labor markets (Portes et al. 989), and post-Fordist production systems (Mingione 1991). Finally, while beyond the scope of this review, there are also other important traditions that have strong links to one or the other approaches described above. One of these is found in a vast literature on social movements that has many points of intersection with the work on comparative and historical social and political change discussed here. Another is work that applies the theories of dependency and uneven development to regional development problems internal to particular societies. Finally, there are structural and poststructural approaches to the development of major social institutions and forms of repression, as found in the complex but influential work of Michel Foucault (1979, 1980, 1985). While this last example could as easily be classified under studies of social institutions and processes, it is included here because of its focus on changes in historical times that have produced modern social forms. State Formation and State Breakdown. The study of state formation and state breakdown has always been a central focus of macrosocial inquiry, especially in the area of comparative historical sociology. Studies of state formation examine the nature of state power and the processes by which it develops. While some sociologists have seen the state as emerging from internal dynamics of society, largely in terms of the interests and struggles of social classes, others have turned their attention to the external dynamics of society along with the market forces of the capitalist system. Tilly (1975, 1990) demonstrates that the modern states were created in the process of capital concentration and consolidated under the pressure of increased international military competition (war and preparation for war). Michael Mann (1986, 1993) examines the nature of power in human societies by focusing on the interrelations of four principal sources of social powereconomic, ideological, military, and political resourcesand relates them to the rise of city-states, militaristic empires, modern nation-states, and nationalism. Another important theory on the relations between the state and society is Robert Wuthnows (1989) analysis of how conflicts between the state, elites, and cultural entrepreneurs caused the great ideological movements to challenge the status quo in the development of modern society. Contemporary theory of revolution and state breakdown starts with Barrington Moore (1966) who proposed a model of agrarian class politics. Drawing upon both Marxian and Weberian theoretical perspectives, Skocpols (1979) breakthrough analysis introduced the state-centered theoretical paradigm of revolution in her case study of French, Russian, and Chinese revolutions. Treating the state as an autonomous entity, Skocpol argues that the state has its own military and fiscal interests, and that under certain circumstances, state interests necessarily are in deep conflict with the interests of social classes. State breakdown occurs when the state experiences high levels of fiscal crisis induced by strain on resources from both internal elite conflicts and external military pressure. In Skocpols theory, the state thus becomes the central actor and the location of crisis in revolutionary situations. This state-centered theme developed by Skocpol has been further expanded by Goldstone (1991), who uses a structural-demographic approach to indicate that the early modern boom in population led to strain on state resources associated with the taxation system and economic development. Goldstone argues that in a system tied to agricultural output, the agrarian state depends mainly on land taxes for revenue. As growing population places pressure on the agricultural economy, rising grain prices result in inflation that erodes state revenues, leads to higher taxes, and exacerbates elite conflict. Rising prices generate profits for some elites who are quick to take advantage of commercial opportunities, but hurts other elites who are slow to adjust and lag behind in social mobility. Revolution is the ultimate outcome of the states failure to meet its obligations. While Skocpols and Goldstones models emphasize either structural or demographic sources of strain on the state, interest in geopolitical principles and strains became increasingly prominent during the 1980s, inspired by Paul Kennedys analysis (1987) of the rise and fall of great powers. Randall Collinss geopolitical theory (1986, 1995) offers another route to state breakdown. Bringing in the Weberian principle that legitimacy of the governing apparatus at home depends on the states power and prestige abroad, Collinss analysis, given validation by his prediction of the collapse of the Soviet Union, demonstrates that a states geopolitical position has a crucial effect on its ability to mobilize critical resources and manage internal politics. In Collinss model, geopolitical strains result in inability to maintain fiscal health. A state that suffers the geopolitical disadvantage of being surrounded by multiple enemy states experiences logistical overextension and fiscal crisis, and thus tends to decline and disintegrate to the point of revolution and state fragmentation. Social Structures, Processes, and Institutions. The research described above incorporates investigation of many of the major social structures, processes, and institutions that form the core subject matter of sociology. Studying change in economic and political systems requires scrutiny of economies, polities, and other social institutions and their major organizational manifestations and constituencies. However, other theoretical and substantive approaches subsumed under macrosociology either have fallen outside the scope of these large-scale studies of social change and development or are at their periphery. Theoretical perspectives include relatively recent developments such as structural, poststructural, postmodern, and feminist theories. Important substantive areas are defined by cumulating empirical bases of knowledge about power structures; work structures; social stratification and mobility; labor markets; household and family arrangements; and the intersections of race, class, gender, and nationality. While it is impossible to survey each of these areas, the explosive growth of feminist theories to investigate both gender stratification and economic change and development provides a prime example of new influences on macrosociology. Feminist theorists argue that gender analysis must be integrated with class, race, ethnicity, nationality, and other sources of social cleavage, and that analyses that ignore the system of gender relations embedded in society are incomplete. Feminist theories have contributed to macrosociology by demonstrating how theories of social reproduction must be joined to theories of economic production to understand social life fully, thus delineating the ways patriarchy coexists with particular economic and political systems to explain the position of women in society. For example, the subordination of women is predicated on the allocation of tasks that exist outside formal labor markets such as household and reproductive labor and consumption activities as well as labor market work. Heidi Hartmanns early, influential, socialist feminist analysis of the intersection of capitalism and patriarchy (1981) explains womens disadvantaged status in both the labor market and the household in late capitalism as the outcome of an uneasy alliance between the two systems. With increasing demand for womens labor in the second half of the twentieth century, the intersection of the two systems has taken the form of the double and even the triple daythat is, women burdened by responsibility for formal labor market activity; household work; and, frequently, informal work as well. Similar insights from feminist perspectives have informed studies of developing nations and processes of industrialization and globalization. For example, Ester Boserups critique of conventional development theories (1970) demonstrates the pitfalls for development projects resulting from ignoring women, as well as the ways women have been marginalized by development scholars and practitioners. Numerous feminist scholars have built on this and related work, combining it with other theoretical perspectives such as world systems and globalization theories, to expand knowledge of the gendered social consequences of core nation exploitation of the periphery (Ward 1990) and the general pattern of ignoring women in large-scale societal accounting schemes (Beneria 1981). Postcolonial theories and Third World feminism further explore the intersections of race, class, and gender as they influence different populations in the global economy (Alexander and Mohanty 1997) Finally, the historical research of Louise Tilly and Joan Scott (1978), among others, has been important in an understanding of how the shift from household economies to wage labor affected working-class women and their families. Unfortunately, much of this work remains underutilized and unincorporated in the kind of macro-level analyses reviewed in previous sections, representing parallel developments rather than integrated studies of macrosocial processes. Research Methodology of Macrosocial Inquiry In the past decades, research methodology in macrosociology has been widely discussed among sociologists. Both quantitative and qualitative methods are used extensively, often in the same larger study. Virtually any methodological tool available to social science is found in macrosocial analysis, ranging from survey research to hermeneutic inquiry. Quantitative approaches include quantification of documentary and archival data, such as analysis of the lists of grievances, or cahiers de doleances (Markoff 1996); analysis of official socioeconomic, demographic, and political data aggregated for larger geopolitical units such as counties, states, or nations; time series of such data for a single state or nation; and standard survey research techniques interpreted to represent structural and contextual process (Coleman et al. 970). Trend analysis using survey data is one method frequently used by sociologists to establish long-term patterns of change by examining historical change in statistical data. Quantitative methods that use longitudinal designs of panel and cohort analyses to conduct observations at two or more points in time have been extensively employed in the assessment of social change and development at the local, national, and global levels. Historical and comparative methods are featured prominently in macrosociological analysis and have been consistently used by the most prominent classical and contemporary sociologists. This approach develops ideal-typical case studies of large-scale organizations, nations, and civilizations across time and space. Thus, social and cultural differences manifest in temporal processes and contexts are the focal point of macrohistorical studies that, as Skocpol (1984, p. ) summarizes: (1) address processes over time, and take temporal sequences seriously in accounting for outcomes, (2) attend to the interplay of meaningful actions and structural contexts in order to make sense of the unfolding of unintended as well as intended outcomes in individual lives and social transformations, and (3) highlight the particular and varying features of specific kinds of social structures and patterns of change. In the existing literature on macrosociological research, historical and comparative methods, with their focus on case studies devoted to understanding the nature and effects of large-scale structures and fundamental processes of change, have proven to be an effective approach to macrosociological explanations of macrosocial phenomena. While most historical and comparative research still involves qualitative analyses using available documents and records, more and more research attempts to employ both qualitative and quantitative approaches. In advocating moving beyond qualitative and quantitative strategies Charles Ragin (1987) points out that, in macrosociological analysis, there are two basic strategies: the case-oriented strategy and the variable-oriented strategy. The former is very much evidence oriented, while the latter is theory centered. The goals of case-oriented investigation, with its extensive use of ideal types, often are both historically interpretive and causally analytic. Investigators who used case-oriented strategies often want to understand or interpret specific cases because of their intrinsic values (Ragin 1987, p. 5). Work by Bendix (1977, 1978) exemplifies this approach. Unlike the case-oriented strategy, the variable-oriented strategy tests hypotheses derived from theory, often using quantitative techniques such as multivariate statistical analysis. In macrosocial analysis, a typical variable-oriented study examines relationships between general features of social structures conceived as variabl es. Social units, such as nation-states, have structural features which interact in the sense that changes in some features produce changes in other features, which in turn may produce changes in others (Ragin 1987, p. 5). For example, a cross-national study of modernization by Delacroix and Ragin (1978) is a typical example of variable-oriented research, and this approach has remained quite popular in the study of development issues as well as in macro-level studies of organizations. Each of these two strategies has its strengths and weaknesses. The case-oriented research enables investigators to comprehend diversity and address complexity by examining causal processes more directly in historical and comparative context. In variable-oriented research, by contrast, generality is given precedence over complexity when investigators are able to digest large numbers of cases. In some macrosociological studies, scholars combine the two approaches, as in Jeffrey Paiges Agrarian Revolution (1975). The Future of Macrosociology Macroscopic analysis of human society stands as a foundational area of research in sociology, and it is safe to predict that it will continue to grow and expand its scope of inquiry. In an increasingly global economy, marked by shifting boundaries and allegiances, and linked by rapidly advancing communications and information technology, there will be pressing need for explanation and analysis of the major historical and contemporary social movements and upheavals. Events of state formation, transition, and breakdown; revolution and devolution; conflicts based on gender, race, ethnicity, religion, region, and class; global movements of populations; and numerous other large-scale processes that increasingly mark the post-cold war era will provide the raw materials for scholarly and policy relevant analysis. At the same time, in the interests of advancing social theory, sociologists will continue to seek ways to link macroprocesses to microprocesses. One of the perennial debates that surfaces among sociologists is whether macroprocesses or microprocesses have primacy in explaining social life. A variant revolves around the issue of whether microprocesses can be derived from macroprocesses or vice versa. Those who believe that the macro has causal priority risk being labeled structural determinists. Those who think that macrophenomena can be derived from microprocesses are dismissed as reductionists. Quite often an uneasy truce prevails in which practitioners of the two types of sociology go their own ways, with little interaction or mutual influence. Despite pendulum swings that alternately emphasize one approach over the other, there are ongoing efforts to construct theory and conduct research built on genuine principles of micro-macro linkage. These have come form a variety of theoretical traditions and perspectives, including those with both macro and micro foundations. While many of these efforts ultimately result in de facto claims for theoretical primacy of one or the other approach, they nonetheless represent an interesting effort to create uniform and widely applicable sociological theory (Huber 1991). Ultimately, most of the efforts to integrate micro and macro levels reflect the initial concerns of the theorist. For example, Randall Collinss efforts (1998) begin with a microfocus on interaction to derive macrophenomena, while neofunctionalist Jeffrey Alexander (1985) gives primacy to subjective forms of macrophenomena. Perhaps the most highly developed integrative effort is found in Anthony Giddenss theory of structuration (1984) in which social structure is defined as both constraining and enabling human activity, as well as being both internal and external to the actor. The efforts to link microphenomena and macrophenomena are mirrored in a growing body of empirical research. Such work appears to follow Giddenss view of the constraining and enabling nature of social structure for human activity and the need to link structure and action. It appears safe to say that, while macrosociology will always remain a central component of sociological theory and research, increasing effort will be devoted to creating workable models that link it with its micro counterpart. References Alexander, M. 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